Use of cunninghamella elegans lendner in methods for treating industrial wastewaters containing dyes

ABSTRACT

Use of a fungal biomass for treating industrial wastewaters containing at least one dye, wherein: 
         i. the fungal biomass contains at least the fungal species  Cunninghamella elegans  Lendner; ii. the fungal biomass absorbs the at least one dye, so as to obtain wastewater that is basically free of the at least one dye.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates in general to methods for treating industrial wastewaters containing dyes. More particularly, the present invention relates to the use of fungal species in methods for treating industrial wastewaters containing dyes.

TECHNICAL BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Large amounts of dyes are used in various industrial fields, such as food, drug, cosmetic, textile and tanning fields (McMullan et al., 2001). It is estimated that the annual world production of dyes is above 700,000 tons, more than a half of which include dyes for textile fibers, 15% are dyes for other substrates such as leather and paper, 25% are organic pigments and the remaining portion is made up of dyes for particular uses (McMullan et al., 2001, Pearce et al., 2003).

Depending on molecule charge, dyes can be classed into anionic (acid), cationic (basic) and non-ionic dyes. As an alternative, depending on the chromophore group they can be classed into azo, anthraquinone, indigo, stilbene dyes etc., or depending on their applications. Azo and anthraquinone dyes represent the two most widespread classes of dyes for industrial applications (Soares et al., 2001). Azo dyes are characterized by the presence of a double bond N═N and by other groups that are hard to degrade (Martins et al., 2001) and represent more than 50% of total production. Their fixing capacity is generally low and so more than 40% of the amount used gets into industrial waste, which has a clear color resulting therefrom, even after accurate purification treatments (O'Neill et al., 1999). Anthraquinone dyes represent the second class for industrial relevance and can be divided into dyes derived from indigo and from anthraquinone. They are prepared by successive introduction of the substituents on the pre-formed skeleton of anthraquinone.

Every year 5% to 10% of the world production of textile dyes is discharged into industrial wastewaters, which get in their turn into natural waterways where they can cause great problems for the environment and for living organisms (Yesilada et al., 2003). As a matter of fact, conventional methods for treating wastewaters are not sufficient to completely remove most of the dyes, which therefore tend to accumulate in the environment due to their complex molecular structure, designed on purpose for giving high stability to light, water and oxidizing agents (Fu and Viraraghavan, 2002a).

Dyes are toxic substances as shown by ETAD (1989) in a test on animals for 4,000 dyes. They can also have a carcinogenic and mutagenic action, due to the formation of aromatic amines when they are degraded under anaerobiosis from bacteria, as was shown in several researches on fishes, mice and other animals (Weisburger et al., 2002). Genotoxic and carcinogenic effects are also possible on men, on whom dyes cause at least short-term phenomena of contact and inhaling irritation (Yesilada et al., 2003).

When dyes get into surface water, indirect damages to ecosystems are likewise serious. As a matter of fact, gas solubility is compromised and above all water transparency properties are altered, which results in serious consequences for flora and fauna (Fu and Viraraghavan, 2002a). Lower penetration of sun rays causes indeed a reduction of oxygen concentration, which can be in its turn fatal for most water organisms (Yesilada et al., 2003).

Toxic substances contained in waste of industries using dyes should therefore be completely removed before being released into the environment (Knapp et al., 2001). Physical and chemical purification methods are not always applicable and/or effective and always involve high costs for firms (Fu and Viraraghavan, 2001, Robinson et al., 2001).

Chemical treatments exploiting oxidizing processes are among the most used methods, above all thanks to their easy application. Some of them, however, involve the use of chemical compounds that are noxious for men's health and/or for the environment such as the use of bleaching agents (Knapp et al., 2001). Among the most widespread treatments the following should be mentioned: treatment with H₂O₂ together with iron salts, with sodium hypochlorite, with ozone, photochemical and photocatalytic methods, electrochemical destruction (Robinson et al., 2001).

Physical methods based on the absorption of dyes into various abiotic matrices have proved to be effective in many cases. Decolourization by absorption is mainly based on ion exchange, which is affected by several factors such as the interaction between the dye and the type of substances used for absorption, temperature, pH, contact time, etc. Active carbons, peat, wood chips, filtration membranes are the most used absorbing agents. Absorption is often favored by the use of ultrasounds (Robinson et al., 2001, Crini, 2006).

A valid alternative to most traditional treatments of dyed wastewaters, characterized by low cost and low environmental impact, is the use of biologic systems, i.e. biomasses that are able to degrade toxic substances up to the mineralization thereof (biodegradation), or absorb them more or less passively on their cell structures (biosortpion) (Banat et al., 1996).

Recently, several researches have shown that biosorption can be regarded as a valid alternative to chemical-physical methods and to microbial and/or enzymatic biodegradation. Such researches have pointed out the capacity of various microbial biomasses (bacteria, yeasts, fungi and algae) to absorb or accumulate dyes (Polman et al., 1996, Crini, 2006), and among the various types of biomass the fungal biomass has proved to be particularly suitable, even if the mechanisms regulating absorption have not yet been fully explained (Knapp et al., 2001, Crini, 2006).

In studies on biosorption with fungal biomasses, Mitosporic fungi and Zygomycetes, belonging to the genus Aspergillus, Penicillium, Myrothecium and Rhizopus, are mainly used. Only in some cases Basidiomycetes are used, since for these fungi the main decolourization mechanism is degradation and, according to Knapp et al. (2001), absorption occurs only in the initial stage of fungus-dyes interaction, which allows to create a strong contact between chromophores and degrading enzymes associated to the surface of hyphae.

Mechanisms regulating dye biosorption by the biomass seem to vary both as a function of the chemical structure of the dye and as a function of the specific chemical and structural composition of the biomass used. As a matter of fact, it was shown that some dyes have a particular affinity for particular species of organisms (Robinson et al., 2001).

Fu and Viraraghavan (2002b), working with biomasses of Aspergillus niger that had been deactivated, dried, pulverized and subjected to various chemical treatments, so as to selectively deactivate different chemical groups, have shown that dye biosorption preferably occurs on cell wall, where the main binding sites would be made up of amine and carboxyl groups. It should still be explained whether during biosorption processes the dye is bound only to the outer surface or whether it can also be carried, at least partially, into the hyphae (Polman and Breckenbridge, 1996; Brahimihorn et al., 1992).

With respect to traditional chemical-physical methods, biosorption has indubitable advantages such as a highly rapid treatment and the possibility of recovering absorbed dye for future use. Moreover, it can be carried out also with deactivated biomasses; this has huge advantages both thanks to the lower environmental impact and because it is not necessary to monitor the various factors affecting the growth of a living organism.

However, there are several factors that might affect biosorption yields, in particular growth substrate, pH, incubation temperature and initial dye concentration (Aksu and Tezer, 2000; Abd El Rahim et al., 2003, Aksu Z., 2005).

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention aims at identifying/selecting fungal species to be used in methods for treating industrial wastewaters containing dyes.

According to the present invention, such aim is achieved thanks to the solution specifically disclosed in the following claims. The claims are an integral and substantial part of the technical teaching provided here with reference to the invention.

In particular, the invention relates to the use of the fungal species Cunninghamella elegans Lendner in a method for the biosorption of industrial dyes, e.g. of the dyeing or tanning industry.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Absorbance spectrum of simulated wastewater containing R80 dye at a concentration of 5,000 ppm, at test beginning (0 h) and after 2, 6 and 24 hours of incubation with the biomass of Cunninghamella elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in a culture medium containing starch as carbon source (AM).

FIG. 2. Biomass of Cunninghamella elegans MUT 2961 immobilized in calcium alginate and grown in a culture medium containing starch as carbon source (AM): decrease of mix absorbance and ppm removed from test beginning and after 6 hours of incubation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention will now be described in detail with reference to a preferred embodiment, provided by way of mere non-limiting example.

In a particular and preferred embodiment of the present invention, the fungal biomass includes the fungal species Cunninghamella elegans Lendner in deactivated form, and still more particularly it includes the strain of Cunninghamella elegans Lendner, MUT 2861, deposited at the DSMZ (Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany), under access number DSMZ 18657 on Sep. 15, 2006.

The results obtained in the present application show that deactivated biomasses of C. elegans Lendner MUT 2861 have high biosorption yields, both towards single dyes belonging to the main classes of industrial dyes (azo and anthraquinone dyes), towards a simulated wastewater containing ten dyes differing in chromophore group (azo, anthraquinone or phthalocyanine group) and in chemical group (acid, reactive or direct group), and towards three effluent models designed to mime wastes produced during cotton or wool textile dyeing processes. The added value of the last result stems from the fact that model effluents were prepared using mixed commercially important industrial dyes, contain high concentration of salts and mimic the industrial wastewaters also for the pH values introducing real parameters that often bars the attainment of good biosorption yields according to Aksu. (2005). Most works on biosorption published until today relate to the treatment of simulated wastewaters containing single dyes or maximum 2-3 dyes simultaneously, with total concentrations of about 200 ppm and almost never above 800 ppm (Aksu and Tezer, 2000). The concentrations of wastewaters used in the present study (up to 5,000 ppm) can therefore be regarded as very high and representative of actual industrial wastewaters.

The comparison with data available from scientific literature shows that the values of biosorption capacity for C. elegans MUT 2861 obtained towards industrial dyes (279 to 499 mg of dye removed per g of dry biomass) are far higher than values disclosed in the scientific literature for other living or deactivated and non-deactivated fungal biomasses (Fu and viraraghavan, 2000; 2002a; O'Mahoney et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2003; Aksu, 2005), and comparable with theoretical maximum capacity values for fungus Rhizopus oryzae towards different industrial dyes (Aksu and Tezer, 2000; Aksu and Cagatay, 2006). Table 1 contains sorption capacities of living or deactivated biomasses of different fungal species disclosed in the scientific literature, among which the fungal strain C. elegans MUT 2861 according to the present invention. TABLE 1 Sorption capacity Fungal species Biomass Dyes used (mg g⁻¹) Authors Aspergillus Deactivated Basic Blue 9 (50 ppm) Up to 18.5 Fu and niger Viraraghavan, 2000 Aspergillus Deactivated Congo Red (50 ppm) Up to 17.6 Fu and niger Basic Blue 9 (50 ppm) Viraraghavan, Acid Blue 29 (50 ppm) 2002b Dispers Red 1 (50 ppm) Penicillium Active Reactive Red 241 (100 ppm) 115-160 Zhang et al., oxalicum Reactive Blue 19 (100 ppm) 2003 Reactive Yellow 145 (100 ppm) Rhizopus Deactivated Reactive Orange 16 (250 ppm)  90-190 O'Mahoney et oryzae Reactive Red 4 (250 ppm) al., 2002 Reactive Blue 19 (250 ppm) MIX (450 ppm) Rhizopus Deactivated Reactive Black 5 (800 ppm) Up to 500.7 Aksu and arrhizus = Gemazol turquoise Blue-G Up to 773 Tezer, 2000 R. oryzae (800 ppm) Aksu and Cagatay, 2006 Cunninghamella Deactivated Direct Red 80 (5,000 ppm) Up to 432.5 * elegans Reactive Blue 214 (5,000 ppm) Up to 427.8 RBBR (5,000 ppm) Up to 273.3 Mix of 10 dyes (5,000 ppm) Up to 498.8

C. elegans has never been used before for removing industrial textile dyes as deactivated biomass, which is therefore able to decolourize wastewaters by bioabsorption only. Conversely, the degradation capacities of living biomasses of C. elegans are well known: as a matter of fact, Cha et al. (2001) have used C. elegans for obtaining the biotransformation of malachite green into leucomalachite. More recently, Ambrosio and Campos-Takaki (2004) have used this species as living biomass for bleaching by biodegradation 3 azo dyes, used individually at a concentration of 0.025 mM, or in combination at a concentration of 0.034 mM.

The fast removal of dyes both from simulated wastewaters, and from effluent models, as shown in the tests carried out by the inventors of the present application, and above all the excellent decolourization percentages already obtained after 2 hours of treatment, point out the industrial applicability of the biomasses of C. elegans MUT 2861.

The results obtained suggest that the chemical structure of dyes can affect sorption yields. As a matter of fact, azo dyes R80 and B214 have been removed from wastewater more easily than anthraquinone dye RBBR. Differences in steric size and/or charge distribution can be the factors affecting the interaction between the binding sites on fungus wall and dye molecules. However, the absence of modifications in the absorption spectra during the trials with the effluent models, showed the capacity of C. elegans MUT 2861 to remove different dyes with the same efficiency.

In the tests discussed in the present application, biomasses pre-grown in different culture media (EQ or AM) have significantly different sorption capacities with respect to the same dye.

It is known that the culture medium can modify both the chemical structure and the structure of cell wall (Bartniki-Garcia and Nickerson, 1962; Farkas, 1980; Krystofova et al., 1998; El-Mougith et al., 1999; Hefnavy et al., 1999; Znidarsic et al, 1999; Nemcovic and Farkas, 2001) as well as colony morphology (Pessoni et al., 2005). According to Znidarsic et al. (1999) the amount and quality of carbon and nitrogen sources can affect the amount of structural compounds, such as chitin and chitosane, and of other chemical groups that are present in cell wall.

Highly interesting is the fact that the biomass of C. elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in AM, the culture medium containing starch as carbon source, has shown comparable or higher decolorization percentage and sorption capacities towards all the simulated wastewaters and effluent models tested than the biomass pre-grown in EQ, the culture medium containing glucose. This result is very important from the point of view of application, if the method has to be used on an industrial level; as a matter of fact, starch is a by-product of several industrial processes and represents therefore a low-cost carbon source and the use thereof would thus enable to reduce biomass production costs, which are generally quite high.

The good results obtained with the biosorption test in a column, show that immobilization in calcium alginate does not affect biosorption yields. The fungal biomass can be also be used without a support structure; for example, it can be introduced directly into the industrial wastewater to be treated.

Description of Cunninghamella elegans Lendner

Description of fungus C. elegans Lendner grown on Malt Extract Agar at 24° C. Wooly colonies, growing very fast and reaching a diameter of 6.6 cm in 3 days; first white but tending to take on a dark gray color and a powder-like appearance after the formation of sporangioles. Heterothallic species. Globous, brown Zygospores, diameter of 25-55 microns, coated with tuberculate, quite flattened projections. Sporangiophores with a diameter up to 20 microns, with verticillate or solitary branches; subglobous or pyriform vesicles, end-side with a diameter up to 40 microns, lateral with a diameter of 10-30 microns. Sporangioles with smooth, verrucose or finely echinulate wall, globous (diameter of 7-11 microns) or elliptic shape (9-13×6-10 microns). Optimal growth temperature 25° C., max. 37° C. for some isolates, 50° C. for others

Materials and Methods

The isolate of Cunninghamella elegans Lendner MUT 2861—deposited at DSMZ under access number 18657 on Sep. 15, 2006 and coming from the product marketed by the same Applicant under trade name Enzyveba Nucleobase—is kept at Mycotheca Universitatis Taurinensis (MUT, Universita di Torino, Dipartimento di Biologia vegetale) as colony in active growth, on Agar Malt medium at a temperature of 4° C. and in freeze-dried form cryopreserved at a temperature of −80° C.

Tested Dyes and Preparation of Simulated Wastewaters and Effluent Models

Simulated Wastewaters

Biosorption tests have been carried out using nine industrial textile dyes (Clariant Italia S.p.a.) and the model dye RBBR (Remazol Brilliant Blue, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Luis, Mo.). The chemical-physical properties and, if available, the structural formula of the 10 dyes are listed in Table 2.

For each dye a stock solution at a concentration of 20,000 ppm has been prepared by dissolving the dye powder in distilled water. Such solutions have been sterilized by filtration (filters with pores having a diameter of 0.2 μm Schleicher & Schuell GmbH, Dassel, Germany) and stored at 4° C. up to the preparation of the simulated wastewaters.

Since in industrial dyeing processes reactive dyes are released into wastewaters in hydrolyzed form, the stock solutions of dyes B41, B49, B214, R243 and RBBR have been hydrolyzed by means of a 2-hour treatment at 80° C. with a solution of 0.1 M Na₂CO₃, and then neutralized with a solution of 1N HCl.

The following simulated wastewaters have been used for biosorption tests:

-   -   saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) containing the industrial direct         azo dye R80 at concentrations of 1,000 and 5,000 ppm;     -   saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) containing the industrial         reactive azo dye B214 at concentrations of 1,000 and 5,000 ppm.     -   saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) containing the anthraquinone type         dye RBBR at concentrations of 1,000 and 5,000 ppm;     -   saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) containing all ten dyes at a         final concentration of 5,000 ppm (mix).         Effluent Models

Three effluent models designed to mime wastes produced during cotton or wool dyeing processes were prepared using mixed industrial dyes at high concentrations. The effluent models were developed by partners of the EC FP6 Project SOPHIED (NMP2-CT-2004-505899) and used under the permission of the SOPHIED Consortium.

The industrial dyes used in these wastewater models were selected because of representative of the most structural dye types, commercially important and with a wide range of applications across the textile industries and were purchased from Town End (Leeds) plc. The chemical-physical properties and the structural formula of the 10 dyes are listed in Table 3. In addition to the dyes, these effluent models mimic the industrial ones also for the presence of different salts, often in high concentrations, and for the pH values.

The first wastewater (R1) contained a mix of 3 acid dyes (300 ppm in total), and has an ionic strength of 4.23·10⁻² and pH 5. The second wastewater (R2) contained a mix of 4 reactive dyes previously hydrolyzed (5000 ppm total), and has an ionic strength of 1.26·10⁻¹ and pH 10. The third wastewater (R3) contained a mix of 3 direct dyes (3000 ppm total) and has an ionic strength of 1.48 and pH 9. The exact composition of the 3 effluent models is listed in table 4. All the mimed effluents were sterilized by tindalization (three 1 hour cycles at 60° C. with 24 hr interval between cycles at room temperature).

Preparation of Fungal Cultures and Production of Biomass

The reproductive propagules have been taken from colonies in active growth aged 7 days, and suspensions have been prepared at a known concentration (2.5.105 conidia ml⁻¹) in sterile deionized water using a hemocytometer (Butrker's chamber). One ml of such suspension has been inoculated into 500 ml flasks containing 250 ml of culture medium. The following culture media have been used for producing the biomasses:

Culture Medium EQ

glucose 20 g l⁻¹

ammonium tartrate 2 g l⁻¹

KH₂PO₄ 2 g l⁻¹

MgSO₄.7H₂O 0.5 g l⁻¹

CaCl₂.2H₂O 0.1 g l⁻¹

10 ml of a mineral solution containing: 5 mg

MnSO₄.5H₂O, 10 mg l⁻¹ NaCl, 1 mg l⁻¹ FeSO₄.7H₂O, 1 mg l⁻¹ CoCl₂.6H₂O, 1 mg l⁻¹ ZnSO₄.7H₂O, 0.1 mg l⁻¹ CuSO₄.5H₂O, 0.1 mg l⁻¹ AlK(SO₄)₂, 0.1 mg l⁻¹H₃BO₃, 0.1 mg l^(−1 NaMoO) ₄.2H₂O.

Culture Medium AM

potato starch 18 g l^(−1 ammonium tartrate) 2 g l⁻¹

KH₂PO₄ 2 g l⁻¹

MgSO₄.7H₂O 0.5 g l⁻¹

CaCl₂.2H₂O 0.1 g l⁻¹

10 ml of a mineral solution containing: 5 mg l⁻¹ MnSO₄.5H₂O, 10 mg l⁻¹ NaCl, 1 mg l⁻¹ FeSO₄.7H₂O, 1 mg l⁻¹ CoCl₂.6H₂O, 1 mg l⁻¹ ZnSO₄.7H₂O, 0.1 mg l⁻¹ CuSO₄.5H₂O, 0.1 mg l⁻¹ AlK(SO₄)₂, 0.1 mg l⁻¹H₃BO₃, 0.1 mg l⁻¹ NaMoO₄.2H₂O.

The use of starch, glucose, sucrose or mixtures thereof is necessary as carbon source for growing the fungal culture. Such components can be used both as pure substances and as by-products of industrial productions. For instance, instead of starch potato peels can be used; instead of glucose molasses, bagasse, black liquors deriving from spirits or sugar cane industry can be used.

Incubation has been carried out under stirring at 110 rpm and at a temperature of 30° C. (thermostatic planetary stirrer Minitron Infors, Bottmingen, CH). After 7-8 days of incubation the biomasses have been taken from the culture medium by filtration, using a metal sieve with pores having a diameter of 150 μm, and have been rinsed several times with saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) so as to remove residues of culture medium that might have interfered with following test stages.

Deactivation of Biomass

The biomasses have been placed in saline solution (9 g l⁻¹ NaCl) and deactivated by sterilization in autoclave at a temperature of 120° C. for 30 minutes. After such treatment the biomasses have been rinsed several times with saline solution. TABLE 2 Chromo- Chemical Common Trade C.I. phore name name name group group λ_(max) (nm) Chemical structure B113* Nylosan navy blue N-RBL P 187 acid blue 113 azo acid 541 →

B214 Drimaren reactive azo reactive 607 navy blue blue X-GN 214 CDG B225 Nylosan acid anthra- acid 590-626 blue blue quinone F-2RFL 225 P 160 B41 Drimaren reactive phthalo- reactive 616-666 turquoise blue 41 cyanine X-B CDG B49* Drimaren blue P-3RLN GR reactive blue 49 anthra- quinone reactive 586-625 →

B81* Solar blue G P 280 direct blue 81 azo direct 577 →

R111* Nylosan scarlet F-3GL 130 acid red 111 azo acid 499 →

R243 Drimaren reactive azo reactive 517 red X-6BN red 243 CDG R80* Solar red BA P 150 direct red 80 azo direct 540 →

RBBR* Remazol brilliant blue R reactive blue 19 anthra- quinone reactive 593 →

Dyes whose chemical structure is shown in the right column.

TABLE 3 Chemical Acronymus C.I. name Chromophore class Chemical structure ABk194 Acid black 194 Azoic (1:2 Cr complex) Acid

ABk210 Acid black 210 Trisazoic Acid

AY194 Acid yellow 194 Azoic (1:2 Co complex) Acid

ABu62 Acid blue 62 Anthraquinonic Acid

AR266 Acid red 266 Azoic Acid

AY49 Acid Yellow 49 Monoazoic Acid

DrBu71 Direct blue 71 Trisazoic Direct

DrR80 Direct red 80 Polyazoic Direct

DrY106 Direct Yellow 106 Stilbenic Direct

RBk5 Reactive black 5 Disazoic Reactive

Rbu222 Reactive blue 222 Disazoic Reactive

RR195 Reactive red 195 Monoazoic Reactive

RY145 Reactive Yellow 145 Monoazoic Reactive

TABLE 4 Effluent model Dyes and salts Concentration g l⁻¹ pH Acid bath for Abu 62 0.10 5 wool AY 49 0.10 (R1) AR 266 0.10 Na₂SO₄ 2.00 Reactive dye Rbu 222 1.25 10 bath for cotton RR195 1.25 (R2) RY145 1.25 Rbk 5 1.25 Na₂SO₄ 70.00 Direct dye bath DrBu 71 1.00 9 for cotton DrR 80 1.00 (R3) DrY 106 1.00 NaCl 5.00 Biosorption Tests in a Flask

The biomasses have been divided into 3 g aliquots (fresh weight) and incubated in 50 ml flasks containing 30 ml of simulated wastewater. 3 repetitions have been prepared for each test.

Incubation has been carried out under stirring at 110 rpm and at a temperature of 30° C. (thermostatic planetary stirrer Minitron Infors, Bottmingen, CH). After 2, 6 and 24 hours of incubation 300 μl of simulated wastewater have been taken for each sample and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for five minutes, so as to remove biomass fragments that might have interfered with following spectrophotometric measures.

By means of a spectrophotometer Amersham Biosciences (Fairfield, Conn.), the wastewater absorption spectrum in the visible has been acquired for each sample (λ=360 nm to λ=790 nm).

In the case of simulated wastewaters, the decolourization percentage (DP), expressed as percentage of removed dye, has been calculated for each sample according to the following formula: DP=100·(Abs ₀ −Abs _(t))/Abs ₀] wherein Abs₀ is absorbance at time 0 and Abs_(t) is absorbance at time t, at the maximum wavelength in the visible (λ_(max)) for each dye (Table 2). Mix absorbance has been measured at a wavelength of 588 nm, corresponding to the maximum absorption in the visible.

In the case of effluent models, the DP values were calculated as the extent of decrease of the spectrum area from 360 nm to 790 nm, respect to that of the abiotic control.

Samples of simulated wastewaters and model effluents without biomass have been used as abiotic controls and for detecting the presence, if any, of bleaching phenomena not related to biosorption, such as photodegradation and complexing.

At the end of the test the biomasses have been filtered on filter paper (Whatman type 1), placed in an oven and dried at a temperature of 65° C. for 24 hours, then weighed so as to obtain the dry weight for each biomass. It has thus been possible to calculate sorption capacity (SC) according to the following formula: SC=mg of removed dye/g of biomass_((dry weight))

When complete decolourization is achieved, SC is underrated, since removed dye is only part of what the biomass might have removed.

The significance of the differences (p≦0.05) between DP and SC values has been calculated by means of Mann-Whitney's non-parametric test (SYSTAT 10 for Windows, SPSS Inc., 2000).

Immobilization of Biomass

For the immobilization of the biomass a conidia suspension has been prepared as described above, though with such a concentration as to obtain as a result of the mixing with a solution of alginic acid at a final concentration of 20 g l⁻¹ of alginic acid and of 2.5-104 conidia ml-1. The mixture of alginic acid and conidia, kept under constant stirring by way of a magnetic stirrer, has been dripped by means of a peristaltic pump (model SP311 VELP Scientifica, Milano) into a solution of 0.25 M calcium chloride, which was also kept under stirring.

Alginic acid hardens immediately in contact with calcium chloride, forming small spheres of calcium alginate with a diameter 2-3 mm, in which the propagules are trapped. The small spheres of calcium alginate have been kept under stirring for about one hour in calcium chloride, so as to obtain a complete hardening thereof, then they are rinsed with saline solution so as to remove propagules that are not trapped in alginate and the excess of calcium chloride.

In order to obtain the development of the immobilized biomasses, 500 ml flasks have been prepared, each containing 30 g of spheres in 250 of culture medium AM. The flasks have been incubated under stirring (130 rpm) at a temperature of 30° C. (thermostatic planetary stirrer Minitron Infors, Bottmingen, CH). After 7 days of incubation the small spheres of calcium alginate have been taken by filtration, using a metal sieve with pores having a diameter of 150 μm, rinsed with physiologic solution and deactivated by sterilization in autoclave, as described above for non-immobilized biomasses.

Biosorption Test in a Column with Immobilized Biomass

About 300 g of biomass immobilized in calcium alginate, corresponding to 50 g of biomass (fresh weight), net of the weight of calcium alginate, have been packed in a glass column. The column has been connected by means of silicone pipes to a flask containing 500 ml of mix simulated wastewater. Such wastewater has been circulated in the system at a constant speed of 20 ml min⁻¹ by way of a peristaltic pump (model SP311 VELP Scientifica, Milano). After 30 minutes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 24 hours a small amount of wastewater has been taken from the system and decolourization percentage has been calculated, as described above for biosorption tests in a flask.

Results

Biosorption Tests in a Flask

Simulated Wastewaters

Decolourization percentages (averages and standard deviations of 3 repetitions) of simulated wastewaters containing dyes R80, B214, RBBR at a concentration of 1,000 ppm, after 2, 6 and 24 hours of incubation with biomasses of Cunninghamella elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in EQ and AM, are shown in Table 5. TABLE 5 Culture Decolourization percentage (%) Dye medium 2 hours 6 hours 24 hours R80 EQ 83.2 ± 4.9 99.6 ± 0.3 100.0 ± 0.0 AM 73.6 ± 1.9 98.2 ± 0.4 100.0 ± 0.0 B214 EQ 88.2 ± 1.3 95.3 ± 0.2  99.0 ± 0.1 AM 91.7 ± 1.4 95.5 ± 0.4  98.8 ± 0.3 RBBR EQ 22.7 ± 3.6 38.0 ± 2.2  57.8 ± 0.9 AM 28.8 ± 2.7 46.1 ± 4.1  63.2 ± 3.6

Table 6 shows decolourization percentages (average ±standard deviations of 3 repetitions) of simulated wastewaters containing dyes R80, B214, RBBR and the mix at a concentration of 5,000 ppm, after 2, 6 and 24 hours of incubation with biomasses of Cunninghamella elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in EQ and AM. TABLE 6 Culture Decolourization percentage (%) Dye medium 2 hours 6 hours 24 hours R80 EQ 34.2 ± 1.5 43.3 ± 3.9 66.0 ± 2.1 AM 35.6 ± 5.8 52.5 ± 2.0 78.8 ± 0.5 B214 EQ 53.2 ± 2.4 63.9 ± 1.0 70.2 ± 1.4 AM 53.2 ± 2.5 65.1 ± 1.3 71.4 ± 0.4 RBBR EQ 51.5 ± 3.4 49.1 ± 5.7 46.2 ± 9.0 AM 52.1 ± 1.1 60.0 ± 2.2 60.6 ± 2.9 Mix EQ 66.4 ± 3.5 79.8 ± 4.3 88.6 ± 1.8 AM 69.5 ± 3.6 83.4 ± 2.3 90.7 ± 0.6

With simulated wastewater containing dye R80 at a concentration of 1,000 ppm a complete decolourization has been obtained after 24 hours of treatment with biomasses of C. elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in both culture mediums; also with dye B214 high decolourization percentages have been obtained (98.8% for AM and 99.0% for EQ), whereas RBBR has proved to be the most difficult dye to remove (57.8% for EQ and 63.2% for AM) (Table 5).

With simulated wastewaters at a concentration of 5,000 ppm, generally good decolourization percentages have been obtained; in particular with the mix removal has been above 88.6% (Table 6).

High decolourization yields have been obtained both with wastewaters at a concentration of 1,000 ppm and with wastewaters at 5,000 ppm already after 2 and 6 hours of treatment, which proves that the biosorption process is rapid and is almost fully completed within few hours.

FIG. 1 shows by way of example absorbance decrease in the absorption spectrum of the simulated wastewater containing dye R80 at a concentration of 5,000 ppm, at time zero and after 2, 6 and 24 hours of treatment, with the biomass of C. elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in AM.

The monitoring of absorption spectra of simulated wastewaters before and after treatment shows that decolourization occurs only by means of biosorption (no biodegradation takes place), since the spectrum profile does not change although dye concentration sinks.

Table 7 shows sorption capacities (average and standard deviations of 3 repetitions) of biomasses of C. elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown both in EQ and in AM towards simulated wastewaters containing dyes R80, B214, RBBR and the mixture thereof at a concentration of 5,000 ppm. TABLE 7 Sorption capacity mg of dye g⁻¹ of biomass (average ± standard deviation) Dye EQ AM R80 278.7 ± 8.7*^(A) 432.5 ± 18.5^(A) B214 327.6 ± 7.7*^(B) 427.8 ± 25.2^(A) RBBR  176.1 ± 27.4*^(C) 273.3 ± 16.6^(B) Mix 393.1 ± 7.2*^(D) 498.8 ± 2.8^(C)  *refers to significant differences (p ≦ 0.05) among values of sorption capacity obtained with the same simulated wastewater by means of biomasses pre-grown on different culture media. ^(A,B,C)refer to significant differences (p ≦ 0.05) among values of sorption capacity towards different simulated obtained with wastewaters pre-grown on the same culture medium.

A comparison of the two different culture media used for producing the biomass (EQ and AM) points out that the sorption capacity of C. elegans MUT 2861 towards all effluents tested is significantly higher when the biomasses are pre-grown in AM.

RBBR has proved to be the most difficult dye to remove, both with biomasses pre-grown in EQ and with biomasses pre-grown in AM.

Table 8 shows decolourization percentages (average ±standard deviations of 3 replicates) of effluent models, after 2, 6 and 24 hours of incubation with biomasses of C. elegans MUT 2861 pre-grown in EQ and AM. TABLE 8 Culture Decolourization percentage (%) Effluent medium 2 hours 6 hours 24 hours R1 EQ 85.4 ± 3.6^(A) 91.5 ± 0.7^(B) 92.8 ± 1.4^(B) AM 83.9 ± 3.1^(A) 88.1 ± 4.1^(A) 93.8 ± 0.4^(B) R2 EQ 50.7 ± 1.8^(A) 56.0 ± 3.1^(B) 59.3 ± 3.1^(B) AM 44.7 ± 4.0^(A) 53.2 ± 0.5^(B) 63.8 ± 3.6^(C) R3 EQ 51.8 ± 3.4^(A) 66.5 ± 2.8^(B) 87.5 ± 2.1^(C) AM 57.1 ± 1.5^(A) 74.9 ± 3.0^(B) 97.7 ± 0.4^(C) ^(A,B,C)refer to significant differences (p ≦ 0.05) among values of decolourization percentage at different incubation time obtained by the same biomass.

Substantial decolourization of R1 was achieved with DP values higher than 93% within 24 hours. In both cases, more than 92% of the DP obtained at the end of the experiment was achieved within 2 hours. In the case of the biomass pre-grown in AM the DP significantly increased from 6 to 24 hours.

The DP values of R2 after 24 hours were higher than 59% and most of the total decolourization obtained at the end of the experiment (70-85%) was obtained within 2 hours.

The DP values of R3 after 24 hours were higher than 88%. In comparison to the other simulated effluents, lower percentage of the total decolourization (58-63%) was attained within 2 hours. For both the biomasses pre-grown on the 2 media significant differences among the DP values after 2, 6 and 24 hours were observed.

Biosorption Test in a Column with Immobilized Biomass

The good results obtained with tests in a flask have been confirmed by the biosorption test in a column, using the immobilized and deactivated biomass C. elegans MUT 2861; in this case a complete decolourization of the mix at 5,000 ppm after 6 hours of treatment has been obtained (FIG. 2).

Obviously, details and embodiments can be widely varied with respect to what has been here described and shown, although without leaving the protection scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1. A system for storing golf balls on a waist of a: wearer including a pocket of a longitudinal extent having ends and locating said pocket in a horizontal manner and having means for mounting said pocket on a waist band of said wearer, said pocket is constructed of a flexible and stretchable material to snugly hold a multiple of balls within said pocket, said balls may be dispensed one at a time including means for mounting said pocket on said waist band of said wearer, wherein said waist band has placed therein at least two double slits spaced from each other, including a single strap attached to a back side of said pocket to thereby create an end of said strap on each end of said pocket, two double D-rings are each located at each end of said pocket, whereby, when each end of said strap is threaded through each of said double D-rings, each of said ends is received within said D-rings and locked therein after having been passed through said double slits.
 2. The system of claim 1 including means for storing golf related items in said pocket.
 3. (canceled)
 4. (canceled)
 5. The system of claim 4 including two straps attached to each side of said pocket, said straps are threaded each through each of said double slits with each end of the ends of each of said straps being attached to each other by way of a buckle.
 6. (canceled)
 7. The system of claim 4 including four straps, two of said straps are mounted on the back side and at an upper edge of said pocket facing in an upward direction and the other two straps are mounted on the back side of said pocket and facing in a downward direction, double D-rings are placed at each location where said straps are mounted, whereby, when each of said straps is threaded through each of said double slits and placed in each of double D-rings the straps may be tensioned and said pocket is snugly held at said waist.
 8. The system of claim 1 including a separable closure located at a top edge of said pocket.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein side edges of said pocket are closed to thereby form a completely closed pocket. 